Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

I. The Equity Theory of Motivation.

Equity theory, introduced by J. Stacey Adams, is based on the simple premise that people want to be treated fairly. Equity is the belief that one is being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that one is being treated unfairly relative to others. Equity theory is derived from social comparison processes.

A. Forming Equity Perceptions

1. People form equity perceptions in a four-step process.
a) Evaluation of self—the individual evaluates how he or she is treated by the organization.
b) Evaluation of comparison-other—the individual evaluates how a “comparison-other” is being treated.
c) Comparison of self with other—the individual compares the treatment of self and that of the other.
d) Experience of feelings of equity or inequity—as a consequence of the comparison, the individual tends to perceive either equity or inequity.

2. Adams describes the equity comparison process in terms of input/outcome ratios. Inputs are an individual’s contributions to the organization; outcomes are what the person receives in return. The inputs and outcomes of self and other are based on both perceptions and objective data. The person compares his or her own input-to-outcome ratio with the corresponding ratio for the comparison-other
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B. Responses to Equity and Inequity. (Refer to Figure 6.1 below.)

1. A perception of equity motivates a person to maintain the status quo. A person who feels inequity is motivated to reduce it; the greater the inequity, the stronger the level of motivation.
2. People use six common methods to reduce inequity.
a) Change inputs
b) Change outcomes
c) Alter perceptions of self
d) Alter perceptions of other
e) Change the object of comparison
f) Leave the situation

C. Evaluation and Implications

1. The Research Evidence. Most studies of equity theory have focused on pay as the outcome and the quality and/or quantity of worker output under conditions of overpayment and underpayment. In conditions of underpayment, there is fairly consistent support for equity theory. When people are paid on a per-hour basis, they tend to reduce their inputs by decreasing quality while simultaneously increasing their outcomes by producing more units of work. When people are paid by the hour, the theory predicts an increase in quality and quantity if the person feels overpaid and a decrease in quality and quantity if the person feels underpaid. Research evidence provides stronger support for responses to underpayment than to overpayment. However, some people are more sensitive than others to perceptions of inequity.

2. Managerial Implications of Equity Theory. For managers, the most important implication of equity theory concerns organizational rewards and reward systems. Equity theory holds three basic messages for management.
a) Everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards.
b) A variety of inputs and outcomes must be taken into account when examining individuals’ views of rewards.
c) People base their actions on their perceptions of reality.


II. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

A. The Basic Expectancy Model. Expectancy theory was first applied to motivation in the workplace by Victor Vroom. The theory concerns how individuals choose among alternative behaviors. It assumes that motivation is a function of how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it.

1. The basic steps of expectancy theory are effort, performance, and outcomes. (Refer to Figure 6.2 below.)

2. Performance is a joint function of effort, environment, and ability.

3. Expectancy theory emphasizes the linkages among these elements and describes them in terms of expectancies and valences.

a) Effort-to-Performance Expectancy. This is the individual’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance. The probability may range from 0 to 1.0, where 1.0 indicates the individual is absolutely certain that the outcome will occur.

b) Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy. This is a person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes. The probability may range from 0 to 1.0, where 1.0 indicates the person is absolutely certain that performance will lead to certain other outcomes.

c) Outcomes and Valences. An outcome is anything that might possibly result from performance. A valence indicates how attractive or unattractive any given outcome is to any given person. Valences for outcomes may be positive or negative and will vary from one person to another.

4. For motivated behavior to occur, the following three conditions must be met.
a) The effort-to-performance expectancy must be well above zero.
b) The performance-to-outcome expectancy must be well above zero.
c) The sum of all the valences for the potential outcomes relevant to the person must be positive.

B. The Porter-Lawler Model. This modification of expectancy theory asserts that under the right conditions, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction. (Refer to Figure 6.3 below.)

1. At the beginning of the motivational cycle, effort is a function of the value of the potential reward for the employee (its valence) and the perceived effort-reward probability (an expectancy).

2. Effort then combines with abilities, traits, and role perceptions to determine performance.

3. Performance results in intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards are intangibles, such as a feeling of accomplishment. Extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes such as pay and promotion.

4. On the basis of the individual’s perception of the value of his or her performance to the organization, the person forms an impression of the equity of the rewards received for that performance.

5. If the rewards are regarded as equitable, the employee feels satisfied.

6. In subsequent cycles, satisfaction with rewards influences the value of the rewards anticipated. Further, actual performance following an effort influences future perceived effort-reward probabilities.

C. Evaluation and Implications

1. Research Evidence. Several studies have supported various parts of the theory. Expectancy theory is so complicated, however, that researchers have found it quite difficult to test. Still, the logic of the model, combined with the consistent, if modest, research support for it, suggests the theory has much to offer.

2. Implications for Managers. Nadler and Lawler summarized the implications of expectancy theory for the practicing manager as follows.
a) Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants.
b) Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.
c) Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
d) Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
e) Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies.
f) Make sure the rewards are large enough.
g) Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
 

III. Learning and Motivation

A. How Learning Occurs.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior that results from direct or indirect experience. Learning involves change. Such change may be good or bad. The change brought about by learning tends to be long-lasting. Learning affects behavior or potential behavior. The changes brought about by learning result from direct or indirect experience. Vicarious learning is indirect learning through the experiences of others.

1. The Traditional View: Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning is the foundation for contemporary approaches to learning. Ivan Pavlov developed the concept of classical conditioning through a series of experiments involving dogs. The premise is that if a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus eventually will become associated in the learner’s mind with the same response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

2. The Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process. Contemporary learning theory generally views learning as a cognitive process. (Refer to Figure 6.4 below.)
a) People draw on their experiences and use past learning as a basis for present behavior.
b) People make conscious choices about their behavior.
c) People recognize the consequences of their choices.
d) People evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning, which affects future choices.

B. Reinforcement Theory and Learning.

Reinforcement theory, or operant conditioning, generally is associated with the work of B. F. Skinner. Reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that results in pleasant consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior that brings unpleasant consequences tends not to be repeated.

1. Types of Reinforcement in Organizations. The consequences of behavior are called reinforcement. The arrangements of various kinds of reinforcement are called contingencies and consist of four broad sets. (Refer to Figure 6.5 below.)
a) Positive reinforcement is a reward following desirable behavior. The effect of positive reinforcement is to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors.
b) Avoidance, or negative reinforcement, gives the individual the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequence. The effect of avoidance is to increase the frequency of desirable behavior.
c) Extinction occurs when rewards are removed from behaviors that previously were reinforced. The effect of extinction is to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors.
d) Punishment is the presentation of unpleasant or aversive consequences as a result of undesirable behavior. The effect of punishment is to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors.





2. Schedules of Reinforcement in Organizations. Managers can use five basic schedules of reinforcement. (Refer to Table 6.1 below.)
a) Continuous reinforcement—behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
b) Fixed-interval reinforcement—behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined, constant schedule based on time.
c) Variable-interval reinforcement—behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the time span varies from one interval to the next.
d) Fixed-ratio reinforcement—behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held constant.
e) Variable-ratio reinforcement—behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, but the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies from one interval to the next.

C. Related Aspects of Learning

1. Reinforcement Generalization. Reinforcement generalization is the process by which people recognize the same or similar behavior-reinforcement relationships in different settings. Following an initial stimulus-response-consequence sequence, the individual learns the basic contingencies of reinforcement. When subsequently presented with a similar stimulus, he or she knows that the same response is likely to elicit a similar consequence.

2. Reinforcement Discrimination. Reinforcement discrimination is the ability to recognize differences among stimuli. As in stimulus generalization, the individual learns the basic stimulus-response-consequence contingencies. When confronted with a new stimulus, however, he or she can discriminate between the two stimuli and make different responses.

3. Social Learning in Organizations. Social learning occurs when people observe the behavior of others, recognize its consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result. Several conditions must be met to produce social learning.
a) The behavior being modeled must be fairly simple.
b) The behavior being modeled usually must be concrete, or intellectual, in nature.
c) Individuals must possess the physical attributes needed to do the job.

4. Employees learn how to behave in the new organizational situation partly in response to what they already know and partly in response to what others suggest and demonstrate.
 

IV. Organizational Behavior Modification

A. Behavior Modification in Organizations.

OB mod is the application of reinforcement theory principles to people in organizational settings. It usually is aimed at increasing desired behaviors through the use of positive reinforcement. The five basic steps in OB mod are as follows. (Refer to Figure 6.6.)

1. Identify performance-related behavioral events.
2. Measure baseline performance—the existing levels of performance for each individual.
3. Identify existing behavioral contingencies, or consequences, of performance.
4. Develop an intervention strategy, apply the strategy, and remeasure performance to determine whether the intervention has had the desired effect. If performance has increased, maintain the desired behavior through positive reinforcement according to one or more schedules.
5. Evaluate the behaviors of employees for performance improvement.

B. The Effectiveness of OB Mod.

Because OB mod is relatively simple, it has been used by many types of organizations. Results seem to support the value of OB mod as a method for improving employee motivation. Nevertheless, some OB mod programs have failed to meet their objectives. Critics also argue that OB mod is manipulative and that it seeks to suppress individual freedom of behavioral choice.

C. The Ethics of OB Mod.

The primary ethical argument against OB mod is that its use has the potential to compromise individual freedom of choice if managers choose reward contingencies that are advantageous for the organization with little or no regard for the employee. In addition, the idea of managers altering or shaping employee behavior has an element of manipulation in it. But OB mod is not unique in this effort. Managers are in the business of shaping worker behavior toward organizational goals, regardless of the approach to motivation that is used. The potential for misuse or misrepresentation is possible with other approaches to motivation.
 

V. Attribution and Motivation.

The attribution approach to motivation is best viewed as a process that proceeds as follows:

A. An employee observes his or her behavior through the processes of self-perception.

B. On the basis of these perceptions, the individual decides whether the behavior is a response primarily to external or to internal factors.

C. Through this attribution of causes, the individual determines whether he or she is basically extrinsically or intrinsically motivated.

D. As a consequence, the person develops a preferred pattern of future incentives. A person who believes he or she is basically extrinsically motivated will seek extrinsic rewards as future incentives. An individual who believes he or she is intrinsically motivated will seek future intrinsic incentives.

E. In studies investigating attribution theory and its application to motivation, E. L. Deci found that if people are paid to do something they already enjoy (are intrinsically motivated), their level of “liking” declines. Furthermore, if their pay is later withheld, their level of effort also decreases.

Assignment 4

Due Wednesday, October 5:

Read Chapters 5 and 6 in the textbook.  Apply the principles and concepts from the assigned reading in answering the questions.

• What are Maslow's five levels of needs, and how do they relate to motivation?  How do they relate to each other?. 
• What is likely to be a more serious problem - perceptions of being under-rewarded or perceptions of being over-rewarded. 

Be sure to include your name, class number, and assignment number on your completed work.  Answers to questions can be in handwriting or typed in Microsoft Word.  Completed assignments can be e-mailed to me or placed in one of my mail boxes.  More options for submitting work to me appears on the syllabus for this course.

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